From Ocean to Skincare: Emerging Technologies Driving Marine-Derived Cosmetic Innovations

4.1.1. Algae-derived compounds

The phyla Rhodophyceae (red algae), Phaeophyceae (brown algae), and Chlorophyceae (green algae) comprise the algae taxon, also referred to as macroalgae or seaweeds, which are aquatic photosynthetic organisms.^[23] The marine algae that have been studied the most is seaweed organisms because they provide a non-toxic, biodegradable supply of natural chemicals with a broad range of bioactivities, including immunomodulatory, antioxidant, and skin-aging delay.^[24] Seaweeds are also well-known for having a high polysaccharide content (such as fucoidan), which has benefits like anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties that can be used for a variety of products, such as hydrocolloids. Algae are also abundant in many additional significant bioactive metabolites, including carotenoids, phlorotannin’s, and polyphenols, as well as vitamins.^[24] Because of its antioxidant properties and ability to shield against UV and infrared radiation, the red algae species Corallina officinalis is used in cosmetic products.^[25] Brown macroalgae from the phylum Phaeophyceae are utilised as a source of minerals, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins, and other substances. As an illustration, the Macrocystis pyrifera, a brown algae, is employed as an emulsion thickening ingredient in cosmetic products stabiliser.^[26] Another promising but less explored brown alga, Ecklonia maxima, shows potential for cosmetic applications due to its anti-melanogenesis, antioxidant, and light-blocking properties. Additionally, green algae are employed in cosmetics like pigments or as a source of vitamins, sterols, and phenolic compounds. Consequently, Chlorophyceae is the source of ingredients included in moisturizers, anti-stretch mark lotions, eye balms, face masks, anti-aging products, sunscreens, scrubs, face peelers, firming ointments, purgative gels, etc.^[27]

Microalgae are unicellular, microscopic, photosynthetic organisms that generate a broad variety of biologically active proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, carotenoids, and vitamins. There has been extensive research on the microalgae genera Arthrospira and Chlorella in the cosmetic sector, with its extracts utilised as component parts in cosmetics for the face and skin. The primary properties of microalgae include antioxidant, anti-aging, skin-rejuvenating, and regeneration properties, but they can also be used in hair care products and as photo-shielding agents’ products.^[28]

4.1.2. Sponge-derived compounds

Marine sponges are invertebrates that are found clinging to the ocean floor and are members of the phylum Porifera. They create several substances to deter predators, draw in food, and prevent the growth and attacks of invasive species.^[29] So, marine sponges have a wealth of natural compounds with a variety of chemical structures. The symbiosis of sponges in order to survive and produce metabolites, bacteria create new compounds that are helpful for cosmetics.^[30] Through the reconstruction of pathways, gene and enzyme engineering, and metabolic networks, these microorganisms can be altered to take advantage of the synthesis of compounds of interest.^[30] In sponges, Chondrosia reniformis is a rich source of collagen, useful in pharmaceutical technology, cosmetics.^[30]

4.1.3. Echinoderms-derived compounds

The phylum Echinodermata includes various marine animals, such as starfish and sea cucumbers. Sea cucumbers are particularly notable for their unique wound healing abilities and are often sold as dried powders and extracts.^[31] These products are found in food supplements, toothpaste, ointments, body lotions, and facial cleansers. For instance, the species Stichopus hermanni is known to enhance wound healing by speeding up the contraction process, thanks to its rich content of proteins, glucosaminoglycans, chondroitin sulfate, growth factors, and fatty acids like eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA).^[31] Another species, Stichopus choronotus, is also recognized for its wound healing properties. Extracts from sea cucumbers have been used in Carbopol^® gel for topical application on diabetic foot ulcers over a 12-week period to evaluate their skin soothing effects. Additionally, these extracts have demonstrated anti-inflammatory properties, likely due to their high saponin levels, which help reduce the production of tumour necrosis factor (TNF-α).^[32]

4.1.4. Corals derived compounds

Corals have long been a staple in the cosmetics industry. They’ve been utilised for years in powdered form, such as in skin scrubs, and are valued for their mineral content and favourable textural and physicochemical properties. Additionally, coral powder is recognized for its benefits, including photo-shielding, antioxidant effects, anti-aging properties, and its ability to combat acne.^[33]

4.1.5. Fungi-derived compounds

Recently, a variety of marine fungi have been discovered in environments ranging from coastal areas to the deep sea. While deep-sea fungi have been less studied due to their inaccessibility, they appear to be promising and abundant sources of bioactive compounds for cosmetic applications.^[34] For example, the genus Acremonium, which can be found in sponges, mangroves, and seawater, has been shown to produce hydroquinone derivatives that exhibit significant antioxidant activity.^[34]

4.1.6. Cnidarians-derived compounds

The Cnidaria phylum has received less attention in the development of natural products compared to other phyla. Most known natural products from this group come from benthic cnidarians. These cnidarians provide valuable components such as collagen, fatty acids, and various compounds from their crude venom, including glycoproteins and phosphoproteins.^[35] Research is expanding our understanding of the health benefits of Cnidaria, highlighting their potential as food supplements, cosmetic ingredients, and for biomedical and biomaterial uses, particularly due to their antioxidant and anti-photoaging properties.^[35]

4.1.7. Bacteria-derived compounds

Microorganisms like bacteria can provide a sustainable and cost-effective source for extracting MAAs, carotenoids, and fatty acids used in cosmetics. For example, Pseudomonas sp. has been shown to produce methylene chloride, which acts as a tyrosinase inhibitor and is known for its skin whitening properties.^[36]

4.1.8. Phytoplankton derived compounds

Phytoplankton is a diverse group of vital organisms, including diatoms, cyanobacteria, and dinoflagellates, that are rich in lipids and omega-3 fatty acids. They stimulate the production of pro-ceramides in skin cells, helping to renew the skin’s protective barrier.^[37] As a result, phytoplankton can be used for their skin whitening and toning effects, as well as their anti-wrinkling and anti-aging properties. For example, extracts from cyanobacteria have garnered attention in research aimed at developing cosmetics focused on preventing skin aging.^[37]

4.1.9. Marine fishes derived compounds

Marine fish are rich in proteins and peptides, which are important active compounds. Collagen, the primary structural protein found in connective tissues and fish bones, has the ability to scavenge free radicals. As a result, collagen derived from marine sources is well-suited for use in skin care products.^[38] Collagen sourced from marine fish is particularly favoured in cosmetics due to its superior mechanical strength and minimal odour.^[39] Research has also evaluated the effects of these formulations on skin firmness and hydration.^[40] The results indicated that serum formulations provided faster and more effective moisturising benefits. Some marine fish species used for collagen extraction include Paralichthys olivaceus, Sebastes schlegeli, Lateolabrax maculatus, Pagrus major, various jellyfish, Mystus macropterus, Saurida spp., Trachurus japonicus, Mugil cephalus, Cypselurus melanurus, and Dentex tumifrons.^[39] Additionally, jellyfish mucus contains a vital ingredient for many cosmetic products. Given that jellyfish exhibit notable anti-aging properties, the cosmetics industry can support fish population sustainability by incorporating jellyfish into the development of anti-aging beauty products. Researchers have managed to replicate jellyfish cells into peptides and combine them with beauty treatments to repair and prevent DNA damage, stimulate youthful skin cell activity, and enhance DNA repair processes.^[41]

4.2.1. Anti-ageing molecules

As life expectancies continue to rise in many countries, the visible signs of aging are becoming a more prevalent cosmetic concern. Ageing is generally associated with the formation of wrinkles, skin laxity, and hyper-pigmentation and can commonly be classed as long-term damage from various stressors. Damage to dermal cellular proteins, responsible for the synthesis of structural components, can lead to the propagation of these characteristics associated with ageing. These marine derived products can be useful as anti-ageing.^[41]

4.2.2. Skin protective molecules

Growing awareness of the harmful effects of ultraviolet radiation has led to an increased demand for photoprotective products. UVA and UVB can damage skin cell DNA, increasing the risk of skin cancers via gene mutations and immunosuppression. Although the best way of avoiding UV damage is to avoid sunlight, this is not always feasible. Frequent use of antioxidant UV protectants is essential to lessen skin damage; otherwise, treatments exist to combat the resulting skin problems associated with excessive UV exposure. These marine derived products can be useful as Photoprotective.^[48]

4.2.3. Anti-pigmentation molecules

Polyphenolic tyrosinase inhibitors derived from marine plants and algae have shown moderate effectiveness.^[56] For instance, phlorotannins such as from the brown algae Sargassum polycystum have demonstrated strong anti-melanogenesis and skin-whitening effects in both cell-free mushroom assays and cellular tyrosinase tests. In murine B16F10 melanoma cells, these phlorotannins inhibited tyrosinase activity and melanogenesis at levels comparable to the standard inhibitor, kojic acid (KA). However, the extract exhibited cytotoxicity at concentrations above 100 µg/mL, which may not reflect its toxicity profile in human cells. Similar findings have been reported for polyphenolic extracts from other brown algae, such as Ecklonia stolonifera, E. cava, and Sargassum silquastrum.^[57] Interestingly, the phlorotannin dieckol (7) from E. stolonifera showed anti-tyrosinase activity three times greater than that of KA. It’s believed that cellular tyrosinase assays yield more reliable results than cell-free assays due to differences between plant and animal tyrosinases, so results from mushroom assays should be interpreted with caution.^[58]

4.2.4. Moisturising molecules

Marine organisms produce moisturising compounds like fatty acids and polysaccharides, which are widely used in cosmetics. Specifically, algae-derived omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids, such as linoleic acid (8) and γ-linolenic acid (9) found in marine microalgae, can be added to oil in water emulsions for skin hydration.^[59] A deficiency in unsaturated fatty acids has been linked to dermatitis and skin dryness. Marine microorganisms play a crucial role in producing these unsaturated fatty acids. For instance, a strain of Vibrio cyclitrophicus isolated from ocean waters is known to produce docosahexaenoic acid (10) and eicosapentaenoic acid (11). Additionally, Nanochloropsis sp. can produce EPA. Cladophora glomerata, a filamentous green alga, contains both saturated (C16:0) and unsaturated fatty acids (C16:1 N-7 and C18:1 N-3) which can serve as effective moisturising agents to prevent skin moisture loss.^[60] The cell wall structure of algae, along with the mucus layer formed by its polysaccharides, helps maintain cell hydration.^[61] Polysaccharides and oligosaccharides can bond with keratin to help retain moisture. Research by Wang et al,^[59] found that polysaccharides extracted from five types of algae exhibited significant moisturising properties, with one extracted from Phaeophyceae showing better performance than hyaluronic acid (HA). This suggests that seaweed polysaccharides could be valuable additives in moisturising cosmetics. For example, a moisturising serum made from Nostoc commune is effective for hydration, skin whitening, and is non-greasy. Beyond seaweed, the extracellular polysaccharides (EPS) produced by marine bacteria also demonstrate moisturising potential. EPS from Polaribacter sp. SM1127, sourced from Arctic kelp, has shown superior moisturising abilities compared to HA in cosmetic applications.^[62] This EPS significantly protects human dermal fibroblasts in low-temperature conditions, making it a promising ingredient for cosmetics. Another bacterium, Phyllobacterium sp. 921F, produces a large quantity of EPSs, which exhibit better water absorption and retention than collagen, chitosan, and glycerol.^[62]

4.2.5. Anti-acne molecules

Sargafuran (12), sourced from Sargassum macrocarpum (a type of brown algae), has shown antibacterial properties against P. acnes, with a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 15 µg/mL.^[63] This suggests it could be beneficial in developing new skincare products aimed at preventing acne. Additionally, phlorotannins derived from E. bicyclis, another brown alga, are effective against P. acnes, Staphylococcus aureus, and Staphylococcus epidermidis. Carrageenan and sulfated galactan, both from red algae, also inhibit S. epidermidis, with MICs of 0.325 mg/mL and lower, respectively.^[64,65] Diterpenes from soft corals, particularly cembrene diterpenoids, possess various biological properties that are attractive for cosmetic applications. Research by Chen et al^[63] highlighted that sinulariolides from Sinularia flexibilis, including SC-2, SC-7, and sinularin SC-9, not only inhibit the over-proliferation of keratinocytes but also reduce nitric oxide production. Notably, SC-9 has been shown to decrease sebum secretion. Brominated compounds from red algae represent a diverse group of anti-acne agents. These range from simple substances like bromophenols and bromoform to more complex organobromine compounds, all exhibiting antibacterial effects against P. acnes and S. epidermidis. For example, Symphyocladia latiuscula, a red alga found along the coasts of Korea, Japan, and northern China, contains significant amounts of bromophenols that can inhibit C. acnes growth, with an MIC of 0.21 mg/mL.^[66] Another brominated phenol from Osmundaria serrata, known as lanosol ethyl ether, is highly effective with an MIC of 0.08 mg/mL, while organobromine compounds from Asparagopsis armata have also shown significant inhibition of P. acnes. These findings indicate that these marine-derived compounds hold great promise for incorporation into anti-acne formulations.^[66]